Post by Coach Campbell on Jul 27, 2021 23:30:19 GMT
The Games Approach and High School Football
by Luke Nielsen
Luke Nielsen is an educator and strength and conditioning coach at Saint Ansgar High School in Saint Ansgar, Iowa. He received his Master of Sports Science degree from the United States Sports Academy, and is currently pursuing a terminal degree through the Academy.
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This article was adapted from an unpublished essay previously submitted by the author as a course requirement for SAB 571: Sports Coaching Methodology at the United States Sports Academy in Daphne, Alabama. This article offers an examination of research related to the games approach, which for the purposes of this investigation will be identified as the implementation of coaching tactics that utilize open-skill training techniques that closely mimic the physiological and psychological demands of competition. Specifically, this essay explores the efficacy of a games approach to coaching high school American football and offers suggestions for the effective implementation of games approach techniques. Methods: An extensive collection of existing research was examined for this literature review. Research related to general tactical sports training, the possible influence of a games approach to sports training, and specific games approach techniques were examined. Special consideration was given to research that was deemed highly applicable to high school football. Results: Athletic performance is comprised of physical, technical, and tactical components, yet performances in closed-skill technical assessments do not necessarily translate to performance in open-skill competition. However, games approach techniques can be implemented to effectively address all three components of athletic performance, and guided discovery learning techniques were found to be most effective in eliciting positive gains in actual competition performance. Conclusions: High school coaches can effectively overcome many of the constraints facing secondary athletics programs and address the physical, technical, and tactical components of football by incorporating guided discovery learning into games approach training techniques. Applications in Sports: High school football coaches are charged with the task of training young and inexperienced athletes—many of whom must fulfill a variety of other academic and extracurricular commitments—to effectively perform the many highly complex tasks that comprise American football. This can be a difficult task. This essay summarizes existing research findings regarding games approach athlete training techniques and provides coaches with suggestions for the effective and efficient implementation of such tactics.
INTRODUCTION
Successful performances in athletic competitions are often elusive and complex in nature. A near limitless number of factors contribute to the successes or failures of athletes in competition, especially in sports that require anticipation and decision-making in open-skill situations. Open-skills are those that are performed under relatively unpredictable conditions. Most sports require a tactical element beyond the effective execution of sport-specific skills, but coaches often dedicate a large majority of time and effort to the explicit instruction of technical skills in closed drills. Closed drills require predetermined movement patterns. Success in American football is dependent on a unique blend of physical ability, technical execution, and tactical understanding; and high school coaches must contend with significant time constraints and diverse athlete ability levels. The games approach to coaching supports the use of open drills that mimic the physiological and psychological demands of actual competition, and games approach techniques can be adapted to provide efficient and productive training programs.
The games approach to coaching is a prudent method for efficiently addressing the diverse physical, technical, and tactical demands of high school football; and judicious application of these techniques must consider the role of tactical training, the benefits of games approach techniques, and which specific games approach protocols will most effectively meet the needs of high school football athletes.
METHODS
An extensive collection of existing research related to general tactical sports training, the potential influences of games approach techniques on sports training, and specific games approach techniques were examined. Research findings were then compiled, summarized, and disseminated in a clear manner intended to allow the target audience—high school football coaches—to quickly and effectively adopt games approach techniques.
RESULTS
Tactical Training
Many coaches dedicate the majority of training time and effort to the development of technical skills and physiological conditioning. However, technical and physiological assessments alone may not serve as accurate predictors of competition performance, especially in sports that require a high degree of tactical ability (10). Kuzmits and Adams (10) examined the effectiveness of the National Football League (NFL) combine at predicting actual success in the league. The study examined combine performances from 1999 to 2004. In total, 306 athletes were utilized. The athletes selected as test subjects were drafted into the NFL and played the quarterback, running back, or wide receiver position.
Data was collected from the standard tests performed at the NFL combine: the 40-yard dash, the vertical jump, the broad jump, the bench press, the three-cone drill, the 20-yard shuttle, the 60-yard shuttle, and the Wonderlic Personnel Test. The combine bench press test involves pressing 225 pounds until failure. The three-cone drill requires the athlete to run a designated pattern around cones placed in a triangular formation. The 20-yard shuttle requires the athlete to sprint five yards in one direction, 10 yards in the opposite direction, and five yards back to the starting point. The 60-yard shuttle is performed in the same manner as the 20-yard shuttle, but distances are increased. The Wonderlic Personnel Test is a general intelligence test that requires an athlete to respond to 50 questions in 12 minutes.
Draft position and statistics from the first three years of NFL experience were also gathered to assess performance. Salary and games played were considered for all three position groups; average yards per carry was measured for running backs; average yards per reception was measured for wide receivers; and quarterback rating was used for quarterbacks. With the possible exception of a correlation between sprint times and running back success, combine performances did not effectively predict NFL success.
Elferink-Gemser, et al. (2) also explored athlete performance indicators and discovered significant differences in tactical ability between elite and sub-elite field hockey athletes. In total, 126 field hockey players were utilized as test subjects. An equal number of male and female athletes were represented, and the mean age of all participants was approximately 14 years. All subjects were considered talented, but elite and sub-elite categories were formed. All athletes were members of prestigious field hockey clubs, but those athletes considered “elite” were chosen for a youth selection team of the Dutch Field Hockey Association. The study examined the influence of numerous factors on field hockey performance.
Anthropometric measurements were taken, and several performance characteristics were evaluated. Physiological characteristics were measured through peak shuttle sprint performance, repeated shuttle sprint performance, slalom sprint performance, and interval endurance capacity. Technical characteristics were assessed via field hockey skill activities, and trainers evaluated the technical characteristics of the athletes. A questionnaire was used to assess psychological characteristics. All athletes achieved generally high scores in all tests, and both elite and sub-elite players demonstrated similar anthropometric and physiological scores. However, elite-level subjects displayed superiority in technical, tactical, and psychological characteristics when compared to sub-elite athletes.
With the high degree of tactical ability required for success in many athletic endeavors, training programs that implement open-skill activities are essential to optimal athlete performance. Memmert and Roth (11) examined the effects of both non-specific and specific training programs on tactical creativity. In total, 135 children with a mean age of approximately seven years completed all of the measures of the study. The children were divided among different specific or non-specific training groups, and all subjects were tested prior to training, after six months of training, and following the complete 15-month program. The subjects were recorded on video during participation in various “game test situations” (11). A panel of experts then analyzed their performances. Tactical creativity was the primary focus of the assessment. Creativity was based primarily on the originality of solutions and the number of different solutions utilized.
The participants were divided into four training groups and a control. Fifty subjects were placed in a non-specific treatment, and the other youth athletes were divided among three sport-specific training groups. Twenty-one subjects were placed in a specific handball treatment. The handball protocol focused on the skills associated with handball, and the overall treatment was very technique driven. No position-specific drills were utilized, and the subjects rarely trained with game-type activities. Twenty-one other children were placed in a soccer-specific treatment. The soccer-specific training program utilized both technical and tactical drills, and the subjects routinely participated in actual competition. Another 23 students were placed in a specific field hockey group. The field hockey protocol also utilized a combination of technical and tactical skills, and the field hockey subjects participated in competitions. The remaining 20 students were placed in a control group that participated solely in the school sports program twice a week.
All of the athletes in the non-specific groups improved general creativity; the soccer group improved soccer-oriented creativity; and the subjects in the field hockey treatment demonstrated improved field hockey creativity. The handball group and the control group, however, did not display improvements in tactical creativity.
Research examining the successful practices of elite-level coaches also supports the use games approach techniques (1). Bloom, et al. (1) examined the coaching practices of Coach Jerry Tarkanian, an experienced and highly successful Division I men’s basketball coach. The study examined twelve coaching behaviors: technical instruction, tactical instruction, general instruction, hustles, praise/encouragement, scolds, nonverbal punishment, criticism/reinstruction, modeling, nonverbal rewards, humor, and uncodable behavior. Data was collected during practice sessions held over the course of the 1996-1997 regular season.
The findings of the study support the benefits of a tactical approach to coaching. Tactical instruction was the coded behavior most frequently utilized by Coach Tarkanian. Twenty-nine percent of all identified behaviors fell under the tactical instruction heading. The next three most commonly utilized behaviors were, in order, hustles, technical instruction, and praise/encouragement. Hustles were identified as verbal statements used to “activate, intensify, or energize the athletes” (1). Perhaps the most important finding of the study was the overwhelming percentage of tactical instruction identified. Hustles, the second most widely identified behavior, comprised only 16 percent of the total coded behaviors, 13 percent lower than tactical instruction.
Effects on Performance
by Luke Nielsen
Luke Nielsen is an educator and strength and conditioning coach at Saint Ansgar High School in Saint Ansgar, Iowa. He received his Master of Sports Science degree from the United States Sports Academy, and is currently pursuing a terminal degree through the Academy.
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This article was adapted from an unpublished essay previously submitted by the author as a course requirement for SAB 571: Sports Coaching Methodology at the United States Sports Academy in Daphne, Alabama. This article offers an examination of research related to the games approach, which for the purposes of this investigation will be identified as the implementation of coaching tactics that utilize open-skill training techniques that closely mimic the physiological and psychological demands of competition. Specifically, this essay explores the efficacy of a games approach to coaching high school American football and offers suggestions for the effective implementation of games approach techniques. Methods: An extensive collection of existing research was examined for this literature review. Research related to general tactical sports training, the possible influence of a games approach to sports training, and specific games approach techniques were examined. Special consideration was given to research that was deemed highly applicable to high school football. Results: Athletic performance is comprised of physical, technical, and tactical components, yet performances in closed-skill technical assessments do not necessarily translate to performance in open-skill competition. However, games approach techniques can be implemented to effectively address all three components of athletic performance, and guided discovery learning techniques were found to be most effective in eliciting positive gains in actual competition performance. Conclusions: High school coaches can effectively overcome many of the constraints facing secondary athletics programs and address the physical, technical, and tactical components of football by incorporating guided discovery learning into games approach training techniques. Applications in Sports: High school football coaches are charged with the task of training young and inexperienced athletes—many of whom must fulfill a variety of other academic and extracurricular commitments—to effectively perform the many highly complex tasks that comprise American football. This can be a difficult task. This essay summarizes existing research findings regarding games approach athlete training techniques and provides coaches with suggestions for the effective and efficient implementation of such tactics.
INTRODUCTION
Successful performances in athletic competitions are often elusive and complex in nature. A near limitless number of factors contribute to the successes or failures of athletes in competition, especially in sports that require anticipation and decision-making in open-skill situations. Open-skills are those that are performed under relatively unpredictable conditions. Most sports require a tactical element beyond the effective execution of sport-specific skills, but coaches often dedicate a large majority of time and effort to the explicit instruction of technical skills in closed drills. Closed drills require predetermined movement patterns. Success in American football is dependent on a unique blend of physical ability, technical execution, and tactical understanding; and high school coaches must contend with significant time constraints and diverse athlete ability levels. The games approach to coaching supports the use of open drills that mimic the physiological and psychological demands of actual competition, and games approach techniques can be adapted to provide efficient and productive training programs.
The games approach to coaching is a prudent method for efficiently addressing the diverse physical, technical, and tactical demands of high school football; and judicious application of these techniques must consider the role of tactical training, the benefits of games approach techniques, and which specific games approach protocols will most effectively meet the needs of high school football athletes.
METHODS
An extensive collection of existing research related to general tactical sports training, the potential influences of games approach techniques on sports training, and specific games approach techniques were examined. Research findings were then compiled, summarized, and disseminated in a clear manner intended to allow the target audience—high school football coaches—to quickly and effectively adopt games approach techniques.
RESULTS
Tactical Training
Many coaches dedicate the majority of training time and effort to the development of technical skills and physiological conditioning. However, technical and physiological assessments alone may not serve as accurate predictors of competition performance, especially in sports that require a high degree of tactical ability (10). Kuzmits and Adams (10) examined the effectiveness of the National Football League (NFL) combine at predicting actual success in the league. The study examined combine performances from 1999 to 2004. In total, 306 athletes were utilized. The athletes selected as test subjects were drafted into the NFL and played the quarterback, running back, or wide receiver position.
Data was collected from the standard tests performed at the NFL combine: the 40-yard dash, the vertical jump, the broad jump, the bench press, the three-cone drill, the 20-yard shuttle, the 60-yard shuttle, and the Wonderlic Personnel Test. The combine bench press test involves pressing 225 pounds until failure. The three-cone drill requires the athlete to run a designated pattern around cones placed in a triangular formation. The 20-yard shuttle requires the athlete to sprint five yards in one direction, 10 yards in the opposite direction, and five yards back to the starting point. The 60-yard shuttle is performed in the same manner as the 20-yard shuttle, but distances are increased. The Wonderlic Personnel Test is a general intelligence test that requires an athlete to respond to 50 questions in 12 minutes.
Draft position and statistics from the first three years of NFL experience were also gathered to assess performance. Salary and games played were considered for all three position groups; average yards per carry was measured for running backs; average yards per reception was measured for wide receivers; and quarterback rating was used for quarterbacks. With the possible exception of a correlation between sprint times and running back success, combine performances did not effectively predict NFL success.
Elferink-Gemser, et al. (2) also explored athlete performance indicators and discovered significant differences in tactical ability between elite and sub-elite field hockey athletes. In total, 126 field hockey players were utilized as test subjects. An equal number of male and female athletes were represented, and the mean age of all participants was approximately 14 years. All subjects were considered talented, but elite and sub-elite categories were formed. All athletes were members of prestigious field hockey clubs, but those athletes considered “elite” were chosen for a youth selection team of the Dutch Field Hockey Association. The study examined the influence of numerous factors on field hockey performance.
Anthropometric measurements were taken, and several performance characteristics were evaluated. Physiological characteristics were measured through peak shuttle sprint performance, repeated shuttle sprint performance, slalom sprint performance, and interval endurance capacity. Technical characteristics were assessed via field hockey skill activities, and trainers evaluated the technical characteristics of the athletes. A questionnaire was used to assess psychological characteristics. All athletes achieved generally high scores in all tests, and both elite and sub-elite players demonstrated similar anthropometric and physiological scores. However, elite-level subjects displayed superiority in technical, tactical, and psychological characteristics when compared to sub-elite athletes.
With the high degree of tactical ability required for success in many athletic endeavors, training programs that implement open-skill activities are essential to optimal athlete performance. Memmert and Roth (11) examined the effects of both non-specific and specific training programs on tactical creativity. In total, 135 children with a mean age of approximately seven years completed all of the measures of the study. The children were divided among different specific or non-specific training groups, and all subjects were tested prior to training, after six months of training, and following the complete 15-month program. The subjects were recorded on video during participation in various “game test situations” (11). A panel of experts then analyzed their performances. Tactical creativity was the primary focus of the assessment. Creativity was based primarily on the originality of solutions and the number of different solutions utilized.
The participants were divided into four training groups and a control. Fifty subjects were placed in a non-specific treatment, and the other youth athletes were divided among three sport-specific training groups. Twenty-one subjects were placed in a specific handball treatment. The handball protocol focused on the skills associated with handball, and the overall treatment was very technique driven. No position-specific drills were utilized, and the subjects rarely trained with game-type activities. Twenty-one other children were placed in a soccer-specific treatment. The soccer-specific training program utilized both technical and tactical drills, and the subjects routinely participated in actual competition. Another 23 students were placed in a specific field hockey group. The field hockey protocol also utilized a combination of technical and tactical skills, and the field hockey subjects participated in competitions. The remaining 20 students were placed in a control group that participated solely in the school sports program twice a week.
All of the athletes in the non-specific groups improved general creativity; the soccer group improved soccer-oriented creativity; and the subjects in the field hockey treatment demonstrated improved field hockey creativity. The handball group and the control group, however, did not display improvements in tactical creativity.
Research examining the successful practices of elite-level coaches also supports the use games approach techniques (1). Bloom, et al. (1) examined the coaching practices of Coach Jerry Tarkanian, an experienced and highly successful Division I men’s basketball coach. The study examined twelve coaching behaviors: technical instruction, tactical instruction, general instruction, hustles, praise/encouragement, scolds, nonverbal punishment, criticism/reinstruction, modeling, nonverbal rewards, humor, and uncodable behavior. Data was collected during practice sessions held over the course of the 1996-1997 regular season.
The findings of the study support the benefits of a tactical approach to coaching. Tactical instruction was the coded behavior most frequently utilized by Coach Tarkanian. Twenty-nine percent of all identified behaviors fell under the tactical instruction heading. The next three most commonly utilized behaviors were, in order, hustles, technical instruction, and praise/encouragement. Hustles were identified as verbal statements used to “activate, intensify, or energize the athletes” (1). Perhaps the most important finding of the study was the overwhelming percentage of tactical instruction identified. Hustles, the second most widely identified behavior, comprised only 16 percent of the total coded behaviors, 13 percent lower than tactical instruction.
Effects on Performance